Intro:

This house was originally built by 尹卓廷 (Yǐn Zhuōtíng) in 1925, and is locally known as “The General’s House.” It is a two story house built using the 四合五天井 (Sì hé wǔ tiānjǐng), four courtyard five skywell, old-fashioned, southern style. It was traditionally a Yin family house owned by a middle class merchant family, but during the 1952 Land Reform, the house was given to many different families and the Yin family left Xizhou. This is when the man we interviewed, 张佑元 (Zhāng Yòuyuán), moved into the house. The house is decorated with many traditional carvings and symbols, many of which survived the destruction of the Cultural Revolution. The General’s house is a great example of both a common traditional building style, and symbolism in Chinese houses, and it also has an interesting and diverse history.

The General’s house follows a very standard two courtyard two story layout in the traditional southern, non-Shanghai influenced style. The house is constructed from wood and mud with an outside layer on the walls made of a cement-like lime mixture. Across from the front entrance to the house is a shadow wall that keeps the house from being exposed by “shadowing” the entrances to seal it off completely from the outside (Yin Chai and Yang Chai, 37). Each of the two courtyards has three rooms on each side, with the middle room on each side larger than the two next to it. These rooms used to be used as living and ceremonial rooms to to host guests when they visited, where they would be served tea and small snacks (Hsu 1967, 31). As more families were put into the house during the land reform these rooms were converted to bedrooms as a practical response to the massive influx of residents. Unlike many houses, however, the outer courtyard was built a year before the inner courtyard. The house follows a linear hierarchical structure, which means that the the inner courtyard is where more important family members, such as the older brother, would live, while less important members would live in the courtyard closer to the entrance.

The layout and purpose of items in the courtyards in the General’s house has also changed somewhat since the land reform. Some functions of the courtyards were unchanged by the Land Reform. For example, people still use the courtyards to do laundry, cook food and entertain guests. The influx of people from the land reform created the need for different families to section off the courtyards into their own private space. 张佑元 (Zhāng Yòuyuán)placed a variety of potted plants to form a rectangle in his corner of the courtyard to create a private dining and reception area for guests. The cluttering of the courtyard has impaired the balance of empty and substantive space in the General’s house. Xu and Shi is the ancient endeavour to balance empty space and occupied space in Chinese houses (Knapp, 58.) This imbalance is representative of the change from old traditions and families to modern Chinese culture and living circumstances caused by both the Communist Revolution and Land Reform Movement. Some functionality has remained the same, but the increased number of families living in the house has created much more clutter in the courtyard as people section off their own space or use their section to store things that once would have been spread through the entire courtyard.

The western side of each courtyard is raised by one stone-width to indicate importance and each is where the most important members of the family in each courtyard would traditionally live. It is called the 主方, or “master wing” of the house, similar to the master bedroom in western style houses. The western side of the courtyard are also where the main reception rooms and ancestral halls were located. The hierarchical structure of Chinese families puts the the eldest brother as the family leader, so he would live in the right room of the raised western side because the sun would warm that part of the house first (Family, Fields, Ancestors, 35.) On the second floor of this western side, the central room was used as the ancestral room where ancestors were revered and offerings were given. In the same fashion as the living rooms downstairs, the ancestral room was changed into a bedroom during the land reform. The eldest family members used to live in the room adjacent to this ancestral room in order to be closest to the ancestors and to heaving in order to make their journey shorter when the time came to join them.

The second floor of the house has a closed balcony and has been changed in appearance and purpose since the land reform. The second floor is closed without an open balcony. This serves the purpose of letting more light into the main courtyard to add more light and warmth where many activities take place. As mentioned earlier, the ancestral rooms of the second floor are now bedrooms, as are several of the other second floor rooms that used to serve as empty storage rooms. This is once again a result of the additional number of people put in the house during the land reform. The entire second floor used to connect with doorways in between, but as people have taken residence in the second floor they blocked off these doorways to create private living spaces for themselves.

The General’s house is built in the standard style, with four sides and five skywells in each courtyard. The house has space for livestock behind the furthest skywells. This style is very prevalent in the south because the extra exposure to air allow to more heat to escape from the house during the hot humid summers (Knapp, 62.) Four of the sky wells are positioned at the corners of the courtyards, and the last one is formed by the courtyard itself. The center two skywells shared by both courtyards contain wells where the family used to get water as well as kitchens that were placed near the wells for easy access to water. These wells are not completely antiquated, as they are still used by some residents of the houses to do laundry. The area behind the back skywells used to be used as a place to keep various livestock in addition to the house’s bathroom. The livestock area has places meant to keep horses, pigs, and chickens, though it has now fallen to disuse with the fall of family-kept livestock. The horse area is a reminder of how people used to travel long distances and is evidence of the age of the house dating back before cars were invented and made common.

2. Family History

将军的家 was built in 1925 by the General’s brother. The General was called 尹隆举 (Yǐn Lóngjǔ) and after going to the Japanese military training camp 日本士官学校 (Rìběn shìguān xuéxiào), he became a Colonel in the army corps of engineers in Jiangxi under the Guomindang. He was captured in 1949 in Yunnan province since he served under the Guomindang, but after further investigation it was discovered that he had previously helped the revolution in Jiangxi. In 1964, he was appointed to the Yunnan Province Cultural History Museum. He died in 1977. (Xizhouzhenzhi, 273). He was the third of three brothers, and he and his elder brother, 尹卓廷 (Yǐn Zhuōtíng), whose original name was 尹特举 (Yǐn Tèjǔ), lived in this house (尹岂泽).

Yin Zhuoting was part of one of the eight merchant families. In Xizhou in the early 20th century, there were four rich families at the top of the hierarchy. These held the most land and prestige, and they were the 董( Dǒng), 严(Yán), 尹(Yǐn), and (扬)Yáng. Below them, there were eight merchant families. They were also quite well-off, and had land and money. Below them were the 12 working families. Almost everyone in Xizhou was related to one of these 24 families. Yin Zhuoting was the manager of the central office of a merchant house called 复顺和(Fùshùnhe). Main office was in Shaguan, but there were also offices in Yibin (Sichuan province), Wuhan (Hubei province), Lijiang, and Kunming. They employed over 200 people and did a lot of trade in tea and medicinal prodcuts, especially mountain herbal medicine. They also traded gold, cloth, and opium; whatever was selling. Yin Zhuoting’s son married the daughter of (严宝成) Yan baocheng, one of the four big families. We do not have as much information on the eldest brother, although he was the the head of the branch office in Lijiang. (尹岂泽, 121)Yin Zhuoting lived in the house he built until around 1949 at the beginning of the Land Reform, when he and his family left it for the government. The General lived there only briefly.

A spritely elderly gentlemen that lives there now, 张佑元 (Zhāng Yòuyuán), moved to the house in 1952 during the land reform. He was born in 1940 in Xizhou. He lived with his father, mother, older brother, and younger brother. His family had a small shop on Ranyixiang, the road we live on, and a little land, but they weren’t making much money and weren’t extremely well off. After the Land Reform, they were moved into the General’s house where, after 1953, 17 different families lived. Zhang shushu’s family all shared a small space in the south side of the inner courtyard, no more than one or two rooms. Zhang shushu was 12 years old when they moved into the house. There were over 100 people staying in those two courtyards; it was so cramped it was basically one room per family. Zhang shushu says there are only around five families currently residing in the house, totaling around 15 people sharing the space.

He later left Xizhou and went to Kunming to find work, as many people did back then, and indeed still do. In fact, Zhang shushu estimates that there are a little over 7000 people in Xizhou now, 3000 of them townspeople and 4000 farmers. However, he says that there are around 4000 people that are from Xizhou that are now out working in other places. In similar fashion, he found work in Kunming at an arms factory, making the glass for scopes. He worked there from 1958 to 1962, when he was forced to return home to Xizhou because of a continued lack of food and money.

The Great Leap Forward caused a general lack of supplies and food and precipitated famines throughout China. During the Great Leap Forward, the people living in the General’s house were forced to transform the ancestral hall, the room used to honour their venerable forbears, into a granary. The strain on resources was such that Zhang shushu broke down the inner door to the house and cannibalized the wood to be made into a wheelbarrow because the door was made of high quality wood that could not be wasted.

After he returned, Zhang shushu managed the workpoints for his family and the others in the compound and then worked his way up to being the head of the brick factory, a position which he held for several years. After the brick factory was closed down, he worked in a tie-dye factory as a common worker for 2 years, and later became a captain of the peoples’ militia during the cultural revolution.

Fortunately for him and his family, Zhang shushu was able to use the prestige and social influence gained by being a captain to minimize the horrible scars of the Cultural Revolution. Although members of the Red Guard did come into the house and deface some of the beautiful paintings and carvings, much of the original artwork still remains. Many of the doors and pillars still bear their original carvings, and beautiful marble landscapes and paintings still reside on some walls and ceilings. This house was much more fortunate than many of the other houses as it preserved much of its original grandeur.

The Cultural Revolution (1966-1972) was a movement set into motion in China by Mao Zedong in order to rid the country of imperialist and traditionalist influences, which would be replaced by Maoism. Throughout the Cultural Revolution, the Red Guard, who were groups of teenagers, would destroy remnants of imperialism and traditional Chinese culture to show their revolutionary fervor. Many exquisite examples of Chinese culture before the mid-20th century were destroyed. However, some individuals with social influence or status were able to use their position to protect vulnerable elements of Chinese culture. 张佑元 (Zhāng Yòuyuán) was able to use his influence as the Captain of Xizhou’s local militia to mostly protect the carvings and paintings in the 将军的家 (Jiāngjūn de jiā), through art, leaving later generations a brilliant legacy of South-Western Chinese culture.

Through the use of symbols in art and facades, a Chinese family was able to show what values were important to it. Longevity, wisdom, education, wealth, tradition and imperial association were important to the family who built 将军的家 (Jiāngjūn de jiā). The inscription on the wall of the entrance to the compound says 理学传佳 (Lǐxué chuán jiā) (photo 0-3). 传佳 means to pass down from generation to generation in a family, and 理学 is a form of neo-confucianism. The prominence of this saying shows how important tradition was to the family. There are also a couple of family mottos in the skywells of the house. One such inscription is 伊洛渊源 (Yī luò yuānyuán) (photo 0-4). 伊洛 is the intersection of the yi and luo rivers and 渊源 means source or origin. Yiluo is near the city of Yanshi in Henan province. There is a Chinese saying 饮水思源 (Yǐnshuǐsīyuán), which means ‘when you drink water, think of the source’, so this could just be acknowledgement of the source of the family’s water. Perhaps this is more metaphorical and this is the family mentioning or at least speculating about where they came from. Yanshi is in the middle of China so the family could also be saying that they are very Chinese in that their origin is in the center of China. This inscription shows the importance of tradition, history and possibly being Chinese to the family. In another skywell, there is an inscription which reads 和气风高 (Héqì fēng gāo) which means peaceful atmosphere and high style, demonstrating the family’s appreciation for elegance.

There is a subtle yet striking Buddhist influence on the facades and carvings surrounding the courtyard of the General’s house. One of the most fundamental concepts in Buddhist theology is the eternal, cyclical nature of life and the universe. Thus many symbols in Buddhism concern representations of eternity. Photo 1 shows cranes flying towards the sun and mountains, surrounded by Swastikas. Before the Swastika was coerced by the Nazis, it was one such symbol of eternity, both in Hinduism and in Buddhism. However, while Hinduism favors the right facing Swastika, Buddhism appreciates a left facing Swastika, as a cyclical representation of eternity. The Swastika also represents the Chinese character 万 “Wan” which means ten thousand, or more spiritually represents infinity and everything (PrimalTrek). The crane is another representation of eternity, because it lives to be very old. The crane’s white feathers are another hint at his longevity. Photo 2 shows the endless knot, another important Buddhist symbol for eternity. The path of the endless knot has no beginning or end. The endless knot can also be a symbol of wisdom or of harmony (Wang, Yang).

Buddhist symbols were also used to associate the family with imperial power. The crane is a representation of imperial power, ranked first in the imperial hierarchy of birds (Wang, Yang), and an image of the crane would be sewn into the robes of high ranking government officials (PrimalTrek). Flying cranes such as these represent the desire of the family to attain more power or status (Wang, Yang). The sun represents the heavens because of its position and brilliance in the sky. Because of the emperor’s position as the son of heaven, the sun was another symbol of imperial power. Mountains also represent heaven and imperial power, because they are the closest things on earth to heaven (PrimalTrek).

A variety of symbols in the courtyard are associated with Chinese culture in general, or even other important Chinese religions such as Confucianism or Daoism. For example, the various symbols of longevity in Buddhism represent wisdom in the Confucian mindset, because Confucians believed that wisdom comes at old age (PrimalTrek). The courtyard of 将军的家(Jiāngjūn de jiā) is surrounded by various carvings and symbols representative of important values in Chinese culture. The first painting one sees entering the house is of the character 福 “fu” which means good fortune, in the shape of a dragon and phoenix (photo 0-1). Photo 3 also shows a carving of a Dragon. In Chinese culture, the dragon is a symbol of benevolence and prosperity (PrimalTrek), said to bring water to lands in drought. The dragon is also the ultimate symbol of Qi, or cosmic energy (Wang, Yang). The dragon is moreover a symbol for the emperor, as it is the king of mythical beasts. The dragon’s association with the emperor makes it a symbol for imperial high rank, or a family’s desire to achieve imperial high rank. The dragon also represents masculinity (Wang, Yang). Photos 4-6 show carvings of a phoenix. The phoenix is the dragon’s counterpart, the symbol of the empress and representative of femininity. When the phoenix and dragon are together, it is symbolic of a perfect marriage. The phoenix is a high imperial symbol, both as the symbol of the empress and as the king of winged beasts. The phoenix also represents “fulu”, or good fortune, and opportunity, as it only appears during times of peace and prosperity. The phoenix is associated with four different virtues: righteousness, propriety, knowledge and sincerity (Wang, Yang). The sun in photos 5 and 6 is another association with imperial power. Photo 7 shows a carving of a deer next to a bell hanging on a tree. Deers are a symbol for wealth. The word for deer in Chinese is “lu”, which is the same word for the salary of a government official. Thus the family shows its desire for a high government position, and the wealth and influence that brings. Photo 16 is a carving of a rooster. In ancient Chinese beliefs, roosters would ward off evil spirits, so the rooster is a symbol for protection and safety.

Education was the means to achieve a government position, so symbols of education were just as important as imperial tokens. Photo 8 depicts a painting of a scroll. Scrolls are representative of education and show a family’s desire to become educated, attain a government position and make a lot of “lu’s”. Photo 10 shows a carving of an ink pot, books, scrolls of paper and paper weights. Photo 11 shows a carving of an ink pot. These are symbols for writing and thus education. Education is representative of the desire to advance social status. Photo 12 is a painting of the four things every Chinese student ought to learn how to do, use or play, Qing (Instrument), Qi (Board Games), Shu (Books) and Hua (Painting). These are still more symbols showing the importance of education to the family.

Tradition was important to the family, one carving depicts a teapot and the various elements of a tea ceremony, showing the family’s appreciation for tradition (Photo 9). The tea ceremony was a tradition in harmony with nature.

Wealth, happiness, and enjoying life were also very important to the family that built 将军的家 (Jiāngjūn de jiā), as they displayed through art. Photo 13 is a commemorative painting from the torch festival in 1941. The large words in traditional style say 福禄（fú lù), or good fortune and wealth. The inscription next to the large characters say that it was from the 火炬节 (Huǒjù jié) or Torch festival in 民国三十年 (Mínguó sānshí nián)，or 1941, and that it was copied from the style of Zhougong, the Duke of Zhou who wrote I Ching. It also mentions baoding, or a tripod pot that would have inscriptions in traditional Chinese characters. Photo 14 shows a bottle gourd or calabash, “葫芦” (húlu), which is possibly a pun on the pronunciation of fulu, wealth and good fortune. There is a painting of children having a good time making a snow-monster with the inscription “in the winter say a snow poem” (Photo 15).

As one exits the courtyard, looking up there is a carving of Suan Ni, one of the 9 sons of the dragon (photo 17). Suan Ni has the dragon’s features but is in the shape of a lion, and is said to enjoy smoke and fire. Suan Ni is often placed next to doors as a guard (ChinaVoc).

Chinese society is focused around the family, and as the place where the family spends most of its time, the house is arguably the most important aspect of Chinese life. Chinese houses followed very specific architectural guidelines, such as feng shui, to make the ‘energy’ or general feeling of the house flow as well as possible. One of the most important aspects of feng shui is the idea of Xu and Shi, that empty space is just as important as substance. Courtyards in Chinese houses play a very important role in both the feng shui of the house and the interaction between people inside the house. Art was an opportunity for families in China to show what values matter to their family, such as education, wealth or social status. While a lot of art was destroyed during the cultural revolution, Zhang Youyuan was able to use his position as the Captain of the local militia to protect a lot of the art in the 将军的家 from damaged or being entirely destroyed. He and his family have lived for over 60 years in that house and have contributed greatly to the history and preservation of the house. The house has been passed down through different families since it was built 90 years ago, each with their own story to tell.

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